little-known facts – AP Biology

Illustrations of wild animals [insect 10 lepidoptera]

鳞翅目Lepidoptera

Lepidoptera

Butterflies / Moths

The name Lepidoptera, derived from the Greek words“lepido” for scale and “ptera” for wings, refers to the flattened hairs (scales) that cover the body and wings of most adults.

Classification & Distribution

Holometabola
- complete development (egg, larva, pupa, adult)
Several classification systems have been proposed for dividing the Lepidoptera into suborders. Regardless of the system used, all of the larger and more economically significant families are members of a single suborder (Frenatae or Ditrysia).

Distribution: Common worldwide.

North America Worldwide

Number of Families
75

135

Number of Species
11,286

>112,000
Life History & Ecology

Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) is the second largest order in the class Insecta. Nearly all lepidopteran larvae are called caterpillars. They have a well-developed head with chewing mouthparts. In addition to three pairs of legs on the thorax, they have two to eight pairs of fleshy abdominal prolegs that are structurally different from the thoracic legs. Most lepidopteran larvae are herbivores; some species eat foliage, some burrow into stems or roots, and some are leaf-miners.

Adults are distinctive for their large wings (relative to body size) which are covered with minute overlapping scales. Most entomologists believe that these scales are structurally related to the hair (setae) covering adult caddisflies. Lepidopteran wing scales often produce distinctive color patterns that play an important role in courtship and intraspecific recognition.

Although moths probably diverged from caddisflies in the early Triassic period, about 230 million years ago, adults in a few primitive families (e.g., Micropterygidae) still retain evidence of chewing mouthparts. In all other lepidopteran families, the mouthparts are vestigal or form a tubular proboscis that lies coiled like a watch spring beneath the head. This proboscis is derived from portions of the maxillae. It uncoils by hydrostatic pressure and acts as a siphon tube for sipping liquid nutrients, such as nectar, from flowers and other substrates.

From a taxonomic standpoint, the distinction between moths and butterflies is largely artificial — some moths are more similar to butterflies than to other moths. As a rule, butterflies are diurnal, brightly colored, and have knobs or hooks at the tip of the antennae. At rest, the wings are held vertically over the body. In contrast, most (but not all) moths are nocturnal. They are typically drab in appearance, and have thread-like, spindle-like, or comb-like antennae. At rest, their wings are held horizontally against the substrate, folded flat over the back, or curled around the body.

Physical Features

Immatures	Adults
Eruciform (caterpillar-like) Head capsule well-developed, with chewing mouthparts Abdomen with up to 5 pairs of prolegs	Mouthparts form a coiled tube (proboscis) beneath the head Antennal type: Butterflies: knobbed or hooked at tip Moths: thread-like, spindle-shaped, or comb-like Front wings large, triangular; hind wings large, fan-shaped Body and wings covered with small, overlapping scales

Major Families
Butterflies:
- Nymphalidae (brushfooted butterflies) — front legs reduced in size. This is the largest butterfly family; it includes the fritillaries, admirals, emperors, and tortoiseshells.
- Danaidae (milkweed butterflies) — adults are reddish-orange with black and white markings. Larvae feed on various species of milkweed. Includes the monarch (Danaus plexippus).
- Pieridae (whites and sulfurs) — adults are predominantly white or yellow with black markings. The imported cabbageworm (Pieris rapae) is a pest throughout the world.
- Papilionidae (swallowtails) — hind wings have a tail-like extension. The tiger swallowtail (Papilio glaucus) is a cosmopolitan species.
- Lycaenidae (blues, coppers, and hairstreaks) — small butterflies with fluted hind wings. Some species are extinct or nearing extinction, others are very common.
- Hesperiidae (skippers) — antennal club is hooked at the tip. The silverspotted skipper,Epargyreus clarus, is a common species.

Moths:

Tineidae (clothes moths) — some larvae construct cases and feed on natural fibers. Pests include the webbing clothes moth (Tineola bisselliella) and the casemaking clothes moth (Tinea pellionella).
Gelechiidae — one of the largest families of micro-lepidoptera. These larvae feed on plants or plant products. Pests include the Angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella) and the pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella).
Sesiidae (clearwing moths) — diurnally active adults mimic wasps. Many pests of fruit and vegetable crops, including the peachtree borer (Synanthedon exitiosa) and squash vine borer (Melittia cucurbitae).
Tortricidae — fourth largest family of Lepidoptera. Larvae feed inside stems, leaves, and fruit. Contains many pest species, including the codling moth (Cydia pomonella) and the oriental fruit moth (Grapholita molesta).
Pyralidae (snout moths) — second largest family of Lepidoptera. Pests include the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis), the Indianmeal moth (Plodia interpunctella), and the greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella).
Geometridae — third largest family of Lepidoptera. Larvae are often called inchworms or spanworms. Includes the winter moth (Operophtera brumata) and the fall cankerworm (Alsophila pometaria).
Lasiocampidae (lappet moths) — larvae feed on the leaves of trees and some spin large webs or tents on the foliage. Pests include the eastern tent caterpillar (Malacosoma americana) and the forest tent caterpillar (M. disstria).
Saturniidae (giant silk moths) — large, colorful moths. Larvae feed on a wide range of trees and shrubs. Well-known species include the cecropia moth (Hyalophora cecropia) and the luna moth (Actias luna).
Sphingidae (hawk moths) — medium to large adults with long proboscis for collecting nectar. Larvae are frequently called hornworms. Pests include the tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta) and tomato hornworm (M. quinquemaculata).
Arctiidae (tiger moths) — distinctive adults, usually white with black, red, yellow, or orange markings. Many larvae are covered with long hairs (woollybears). Includes the fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea).
Lymantriidae (tussock moths) — larvae are characterized by tufts of hair along the body. Adults do not feed. Pests include the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) and the browntail moth (Euproctis chrysorrhoea).
Noctuidae (loopers, owlet moths, and underwings) — this is the largest family in the Lepidoptera. Larvae are leaf feeders and stem borers. Many species are pests, including the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda), the black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon), and the cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni).

Bug Bytes♣

Some butterflies (family Lycaenidae) are considered “endangered species”. The Xerces blue (Glaucopsyche xerces) was last collected in 1943 from sand dunes near San Francisco, CA. This butterfly’s name has been adopted by the Xerces Society, an organization dedicated to the preservation of endangered species.
In flight, front and hind wings are linked together by a bristle (frenulum) or a membranous flap (jugum) so both wings move up and down in synchrony.
According to folklore, larvae of the banded woollybear, Pyrrharctia isabella, can forecast the severity of winter weather. A wide brown band means the winter will be harsh, a narrow brown band means the winter will be mild.
Adults of most Noctuidae and Arctiidae have “ears” in the thorax that help them detect and evade echo-locating bats. Some species of Arctiidae even produce high-pitched ticks that confuse the bats.

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Butterflies

凤蝶科Papilionidae(swallowtails)

1. 冰清绢蝶 Parnassius glacialis

2. 碧凤蝶 Papilio bianor

3. 柑橘凤蝶 Pailio xuthus

4. 金凤蝶 Pailio machaon

5. 宽尾凤蝶 Agehana elwesi.

6.青凤蝶Graphium sarpedon

7. 麝凤蝶 Byasa alcinous

灰蝶科Lycaenidae(blues, coppers, and hairstreaks)

1. 亮灰蝶Lampides boeticus

2. 琉璃灰蝶Celastrina sp.

3. 蓝灰蝶 Everes argiades

4. 红灰蝶 Lycaena phlaeas

5. 银线灰蝶Spindasis sp.

Moths

天蚕蛾科Saturniidae(giant silk moths)

1. 合目天蚕蛾 Caligula fallax

2. 银杏天蚕蛾Dictyoploca japonica

3.长尾天蚕蛾 Actias dubernaerdi

4.樗蚕娥Philosamia cynthia

天蛾科Sphingidae(hawk moths)

1.构月天蛾Parum colligata

2. 鹰翅天蛾Ambulyx sp.

3. 紫光盾天蛾 Phyllosphingia dissimilis

灯蛾科Arctiidae(tiger moths)

1. Miltochrista ziczac

2.首丽灯蛾Callimorpha principalis

3. 红带新鹿蛾Caeneressa rubrozonat

毒蛾科Lymantridae(tussock moths)

1. 黑褐盗毒蛾Porthesia atereta

2.条毒蛾Lymantria dissoluta

Illustrations of wild animals [insect 9: Orthoptera]

直翅目Orthoptera

Orthoptera

Grasshoppers / Locusts / Crickets / Katydids

The name Orthoptera, derived from the Greek “ortho” meaning straight and “ptera” meaning wing, refers to the parallel-sided structure of the front wings (tegmina).

Classification & Distribution

Hemimetabola
- incomplete development (egg, nymph, adult)
Orthopteroid
- closely related to Blattodea and Dermaptera
Distribution: Common and abundant throughout the world

North America
Worldwide

Number of Families
11

28

Number of Species
1,080

>20,000

Life History & Ecology

Orthoptera probably arose during the middle of the Carboniferous period. Most living members of this order are terrestrial herbivores with modified hind legs that are adapted for jumping.

Slender, thickened front wings fold back over the abdomen to protect membranous, fan-shaped hind wings. Many species have the ability to make and detect sounds. Orthoptera is one of the largest and most important groups of plant-feeding insects.

Physical Features


Adults	Immatures
Antennae filiform Mouthparts mandibulate, hypognathous Pronotum shield like, covering much of thorax Front wings narrow, leathery (tegmina); hind wings fan-like Hind legs usually adapted for jumping (hind femur enlarged) Tarsi 3- or 4-segmented Cerci short, unsegmented	Structurally similar to adults Developing wingpads often visible on thorax

Major Families

Grasshoppers and Locusts:

- Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers and locusts) — Herbivores. Common in grasslands and prairies. This family includes many pest species such as the twostriped grasshopper (Melanoplus bivittatus), the differential grasshopper (M. differentialis), the African migratory locust (Locusta migratoria), and the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria).
- Tetrigidae (pigmy grasshoppers) — Herbivores. Similar to short-horned grasshoppers but with a pronotum that extends to the back of the abdomen.

Katydids:

- Tettigoniidae (long-horned grasshoppers and katydids) — Herbivores. Females have a long, blade-like ovipositor. Some species are pests of trees and shrubs.

Crickets

- Gryllidae (true crickets) — Herbivores and scavengers. Females have a cylindrical or needle-shaped ovipositor. This family includes the house cricket, Acheta domesticus.
- Gryllacrididae (camel crickets) — Scavengers. Most species have a distinctly hump-backed appearance; a few are cave dwellers.
- Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets) — The front legs are adapted for digging. Most species feed on the roots of plants, but some are predatory.

Bug Bytes♣

In many species of Orthoptera, the males use sound signals (chirping or whirring) in order to attract a mate. The sound is produced by stridulation — rubbing the upper surface of one wing against the lower surface of another wing, or the inner surface of the hind leg against the outer surface of the front wing.
Each stridulating species produces a unique mating call. In fact, some species may be so similar to each other that they can only be distinguished by their mating calls.
Many grasshoppers produce ultrasonic mating calls (above the range of human hearing). In some species, the sounds may be as high as 100 kHz. (Human hearing extends to about 20 kHz.)
Species that produce sound also have auditory (tympanal) organs. In crickets and katydids, these “ears” are on the tibia of the front legs. In grasshoppers, they are on the sides of the first abdominal segment.
The snowy tree cricket, Oecanthus fultoni (family Gryllidae), is often called the temperature cricket. Adding 40 to the number of chirps it makes in 15 seconds will equal the ambient temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.
The redlegged grasshopper Melanoplus femurrubrum is not only a crop pest but also the intermediate host for a tapeworm Choanotaenia infundibulum that infests poultry

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剑角蝗科Acrididae(short-horned grasshoppers and locusts)

1. 中华剑角蝗 Acrida cinerea

2. 短翅佛蝗Phlaeoba angustidorsis

蚱科Tetrigidae(pigmy grasshoppers)

1. 日本蚱Tetrix japonica

2. 突眼蚱 Ergatettix dorsiferus

螽斯科Tettigoniidae(long-horned grasshoppers and katydids)

1. 中华尤螽Uvarovina chinensis

2.尤螽Uvarovina sp.

3. 寰螽 Atlanticus sp.

绿螽斯 tettigonia sp.

5. 斑腿栖螽Tettigonia chinensis

蟋蟀科Gryllidae(true crickets)

1. 斗蟀Velarifictorus sp.

2. 扁头蟋Loxoblemmus sp.

3. 多伊棺头蟋Loxoblemmus doenitzi

蟋螽科Gryllacrididae(camel crickets)

1.素色杆蟋螽Phryganogryllacris unicolor

Illustrations of wild animals [insect 8 Diptera]

双翅目DIPTERA

Diptera

True Flies / Mosquitoes / Gnats / Midges

The name Diptera, derived from the Greek words “di”meaning two and “ptera” meaning wings, refers to the fact that true flies have only a single pair of wings.

Classification & Distribution

Holometabola

complete development (egg, larva, pupa, adult)

The Diptera have traditionally been divided into three suborders:

Nematocera (flies with multisegmented antennae)
Brachycera (flies with stylate antennae)
Cyclorrhapha (flies with aristate antennae)

In some newer classifications, Brachycera includes the Cyclorrhapha.

Distribution: Abundant worldwide. Larvae are found in all fresh water, semi-aquatic, and moist terrestrial environments.

	North America	Worldwide
Number of Families	108	130
Number of Species	16,914	~98,500

Life History & Ecology

The order Diptera includes all true flies. These insects are distinctive because their hind wings are reduced to small, club-shaped structures called halteres – only the membranous front wings serve as aerodynamic surfaces. The halteres vibrate during flight and work much like a gyroscope to help the insect maintain balance.

All Dipteran larvae are legless. They live in aquatic (fresh water), semi-aquatic, or moist terrestrial environments. They are commonly found in the soil, in plant or animal tissues, and in carrion or dung — almost always where there is little danger of desiccation. Some species are herbivores, but most feed on dead organic matter or parasitize other animals, especially vertebrates, molluscs, and other arthropods. In the more primitive families (suborder Nematocera), fly larvae have well-developed head capsules with mandibulate mouthparts. These structures are reduced or absent in the more advanced suborders (Brachycera and Cyclorrhapha) where the larvae, known as maggots, have worm-like bodies and only a pair of mouth hooks for feeding.

Adult flies live in a wide range of habitats and display enormous variation in appearance and life style. Although most species have haustellate mouthparts and collect food in liquid form, their mouthparts are so diverse that some entomologists suspect the feeding adaptations may have arisen from more than a single evolutionary origin. In many families, the proboscis (rostrum) is adapted for sponging and/or lapping. These flies survive on honeydew, nectar, or the exudates of various plants and animals (dead or alive). In other families, the proboscis is adapted for cutting or piercing the tissues of a host. Some of these flies are predators of other arthropods (e.g., robber flies), but most of them are external parasites (e.g., mosquitoes and deer flies) that feed on the blood of their vertebrate hosts, including humans and most wild and domestic animals.

Physical Features

Immatures:

Culiciform
- Head capsule present with chewing mouthparts
- Legs absent
Vermiform (maggots)
- Without legs or a distinct head capsule
- Mouthparts reduced; only present as mouth hooks

Adults:

Antennae filiform, stylate, or aristate
Mouthparts suctorial (haustellate)
Mesothorax larger than pro- or metathorax
One pair of wings (front); hind wings reduced (halteres)
Tarsi 5-segmented

Major Families

Biting flies: In most cases, only the adult females take blood meals.♦
Herbivores: larvae feed on plant tissues.
Scavengers: larvae feed in dung, carrion, garbage, or other organic matter.
Predators: adults and/or larvae attack other insects as prey.:
Parasites: larvae are parasites or parasitoids of other animals.
Bug Bytes ♣
- Although they have only two wings, flies are among the best aerialists in the insect world – they can hover, fly backwards, turn in place, and even fly upside down to land on a ceiling.
- Flies have the highest wing-beat frequency of any animal. In some tiny midges, it may be as high as 1000 beats per second. Male mosquitoes are attracted by the wing-beat frequency of a virgin female.
- Larvae of some shore flies (family Ephydridae) live in unusual habitats that would kill other insects. For example, Ephydra brucei lives in hot springs and geysers where the water temperature exceeds 112 degrees Fahrenheit; Helaeomyia petrolei develop in pools of crude oil; and the brine fly, Ephydra cinera, can survive very high concentrations of salt.
- The arista in the antenna of higher flies is an air speed indicator. It allows the insect to sense how fast it is moving.
- As they mature, black fly pupae become inflated with air. Upon emergence, the pupal skin pops open and the adult fly floats to the water surface inside a bubble of air. It never even gets its feet wet!
- The little scuttle fly, Megaselia scataris (Phoridae), is truly an omnivore. It has been reared from decaying vegetation, shoe polish, paint emulsions, human cadavers pickled in formalin, and even lung tissue from living people.

====================================================↑Quoted from the General Entomology course at North Carolina State University >Resource Library > Compendium > diptera (© 2009 by John R. Meyer; Last Updated: 8 April 2009)

>Learn more about homoptera (www.insectsexplained.com)

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虻科Tabanidae(horse flies / deer flies, biting flies)

虻Tabanus sp.

大蚊科Tipulidae (crane flies, scavengers )

1. 大蚊 Tipua sp.

2. 斑大蚊 Nephrotoma appendiculata

3. 亮大蚊 Limonia sp

4. 雅大蚊Tipula sp.

5. 双色丽大蚊Tipula sp.

6. 短柄大蚊 Nephrotoma sp.

寄蝇科Tachinidae(parasites of other insects)

1. 绒寄蝇Tachina sp.

2.长须寄蝇Peletina sp.

3. 灰等腿寄蝇 Isomera cinerascens

4. 柞蚕饰腹寄蝇 Blepharipa tibialis

食蚜蝇科Syrphidae

1. 双色小蚜蝇Paragus bicolor

2. 亮黑斑眼蚜蝇Eristalinus tarsalis

3. 三带蜂蚜蝇Volucella trifasciata

4. 凹带蚜蝇Metasyrphus nitens

5. 紫额异巴蚜蝇Allobacha apicalis

6.切黑狭口蚜蝇 Asarkina ericetorum

7. 宽带细腹蚜蝇Sphaerophoria macrogaster

8. 宽盾蚜蝇Phytomia sp.

Mendel’s Genetics [6]: Examples of epistasis

In Mendel’s dihybrid cross, each gene locus(the position of a gene along a chromosome, often used to refer to the gene itself.) had an independent effect on a single phenotype. Thus, the R and r alleles affected only the shape of the seed and had no influence on seed color, while the Y and y alleles affected only seed color and had no influence on seed shape. In this case, there were two separate genes that coded for two separate characteristics.

But what happens when two different loci affect the same characteristic? For instance, what if both of the loci in Mendel’s experiment affected seed color?

Let’s begin with a relatively simple example.

example (1) 9:3:3:1→9:7

enzyme A serves to convert white substrate in an unnamed plant to white product; enzyme B synthesizes purple pigment and converts the white product to purple product.

In this case, If BOTH A & B exist, purple product is yielded;

If ONLY A OR B exists, synthesis of purple pigment cannot be completed, and purple product won’t be produced;

If NEITHER ENZYME exist, purple pigment, surely, cannot be synthesized, and purple product won’t be produced.

Based on the info above, the dihybrid F2 generation looks like this:

When the situation gets a little bit more complicated:

example (2) 9:3:3:1→9:3:4

enzyme A serves in the synthesis of red pigment and converts white substrate in an unnamed plant to red product; enzyme B synthesizes purple pigment and converts the red product to purple product.

In this case, If BOTH A & B exist, purple product is yielded;

If ONLY A exists, synthesis of red pigment can be completed but synthesis of purple pigment cannot, and red product will be produced;

If NEITHER ENZYME exist or ONLY B exists, surely, neither red or purple pigment, can be synthesized, and the the yield will be white.

Based on the info above, the dihybrid F2 generation looks like this:

A more complex situation:

example (3): 9:3:3:1→12:3:1

Here two enzymes compete for the same substrate. Enzyme A converts the substrate to a purple product, and enzyme B to a red product. BUT enzyme A has much higher affinity for the substrate than enzyme B. The difference in affinity is so marked that enzyme B can only work effectively without the presence of enzyme A

SO as long as enzyme A is present, the yield is be purple; only when enzyme B exists without enzyme A would the yield be red; and only when neither B or A exists would the yield be white.

Based on the info above, the dihybrid F2 generation looks like this:

[F2] purple: red: white=12: 3: 1

The three examples above lead us to a new concept: Epistasis.

Sometimes genes can mask each other’s presence or combine to produce an entirely new trait. Epistasis describes how gene interactions can affect phenotypes.

In a strict sense, 12: 3: 1 is the only ratio which was originally referred to as epistasis, because the presence of enzyme A can completely make the genotype of the B gene. But the term is now used wherever genes interact to alter the expected ratios.

There are several other variations of the 9:3:3:1 ratio caused by interaction between the gene products, including 9:6:1, 15:1, and 13:3.

In every case the ratios are derived by summing together the four phenotype classes 9, 3, 3, or 1 of the basic ratio.

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For more examples and explanations of the Epistasis, see Epistasis and Its Effects on Phenotype | Learn Science at Scitable

Illustrations of wild animals [insect 5 Hemiptera]

半翅目 HEMIPTERA

Most people tend to call anything with lots of legs a “bug.” However, to an entomologist, a “bug” is one of the 35,000 or so species of the order Hemiptera.

Hemiptera means “half wing” and refers to the fact that part of the first pair of wings is toughened and hard, while the rest of the first pair and the second pair are membranous. Hemipterans also have modified piercing and sucking mouthparts; some suck plant juices and are plant pests, while others can bite painfully.

A possibly paraphyletic group of insects known as the Homoptera is sometimes included within the Hemiptera, even though they lack the toughened areas on the first pair of wings.

Some entomologists group both Hemiptera and Homoptera within the group Heteroptera; others use the name Heteroptera for what we have called the Hemiptera and use Hemiptera for the Heteroptera.

↑Quoted from University of California Museum Paleontology>arthropoda>uniramia>hemiptera

Hemiptera(/heteroptera)
Suborder Heteroptera (/hemiptera)

True Bugs

The name Heteroptera, derived from the Greek “hetero-“em> meaning different and “ptera” meaning wings, refers to the fact that the texture of the front wings is different near the base (leathery) than at the apex (membranous).

Classification & Distribution

Hemimetabola
- incomplete development (egg, nymph, adult)
Orthopteroid
- closely related to Thysanoptera and Psocoptera
Distribution: Abundant worldwide. Found in most terrestrial and freshwater habitats.

North America
Worldwide

Number of Families
40

73

Number of Species
3587

>50,000
Life History & Ecology

Members of the suborder Heteroptera are known as “true bugs”.

They have very distinctive front wings, called hemelytra, in which the basal half is leathery and the apical half is membranous. At rest, these wings cross over one another to lie flat along the insect’s back.

These insects also have elongate, piercing-sucking mouthparts which arise from the ventral (hypognathous) or anterior (prognathous) part of the head capsule.

The mandibles and maxillae are long and thread-like, interlocking with one another to form a flexible feeding tube (proboscis) that is no more than 0.1 mm in diameter yet contains both a food channel and a salivary channel. These stylets are enclosed within a protective sheath (the labium) that shortens or retracts during feeding.

The Heteroptera include a diverse assemblage of insects that have become adapted to a broad range of habitats — terrestrial, aquatic and semi-aquatic.

Terrestrial species are often associated with plants. They feed in vascular tissues or on the nutrients stored within seeds. Other species live as scavengers in the soil or underground in caves or ant nests. Still others are predators on a variety of small arthropods. A few species even feed on the blood of vertebrates.

Bed bugs, and other members of the family Cimicidae, live exclusively as ectoparasites on birds and mammals (including humans). Aquatic Heteroptera can be found on the surface of both fresh and salt water, near shorelines, or beneath the water surface in nearly all freshwater habitats. With only a few exceptions, these insects are predators of other aquatic organisms.

Physical Features

Adults:

Antennae slender with 4-5 segments
Proboscis 3-4 segmented, arising from front of head and curving below body when not in use
Pronotum usually large, trapezoidal or rounded
Triangular scutellum present behind pronotum
Front wings with basal half leathery and apical half membranous (hemelytra). Wings lie flat on the back at rest, forming an “X”.
Tarsi 2- or 3-segmented

Immatures:

Structurally similar to adults
Always lacking wings

Major Families

The three largest families of Heteroptera are:
- - Miridae (Plant Bugs) — Most species feed on plants, but some are predaceous. This family includes numerous pests such as the tarnished plant bug (Lygus lineolaris).
  - Lygaeidae (Seed Bugs) — Most species are seed feeders, a few are predatory. This family includes the chinch bug, Blissus leucopterus a pest of small grains, and the bigeyed bug, Geocoris bullatis, a beneficial predator.
  - Pentatomidae (Stink Bugs) — Shield-shaped body with large, triangular scutellum. Most species are herbivores, some are predators. All have scent glands which can produce an unpleasant odor.
Other families of terrestrial herbivores include:
- - Tingidae (lace bugs)
  - Coreidae (squash bugs and leaffooted bugs)
  - Alydidae (broadheaded bugs)
  - Rhopalidae (scentless plant bugs)
  - Berytidae (stilt bugs)
Other families of terrestrial predators include:
- - Reduviidae (assassin bugs)
  - Phymatidae (ambush bugs)
  - Nabidae (damsel bugs)
  - Anthocoridae (minute pirate bugs)
The major families of aquatic predators include:
- - Corixidae (water boatmen)
  - Gerridae (water striders)
  - Nepidae (water scorpions)
  - Belostomatidae (giant water bugs)
  - Naucoridae (creeping water bugs)
  - Notonectidae (backswimmers)
Bug Bytes
- Two families of Heteroptera are ectoparasites. The Cimicidae (bed bugs) live on birds and mammals (including humans). The Polyctenidae (bat bugs) live on bats.
- Water striders in the genus Halobates (family Gerridae) are the only insects that are truly marine. They live on the surface of the Pacific Ocean.
- Unlike other insects, male bedbugs do not place their sperm directly in the female’s reproductive tract. Instead, they puncture her abdomen and inject the sperm into her body cavity. The sperm swim to the ovaries where they fertilize the eggs. This unusual type of reproductive behavior is appropriately known as “traumatic insemination”.
- Some members of the family Largidae resemble ants. They live as social parasites in ant nests, mimicking the ants’ behavior to get food

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>Learn more about heteroptera (www.insectsexplained.com)

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蝽科 Pentatomidae

1. 全蝽Homalogonia sp.

2.双峰疣蝽 Cazira verrucosa

3. 庐山珀蝽Plautia lushanica

4.弯角蝽Lelia decem punctata

5. 斑须蝽 Dolycoris baccarum

6.梭蝽Megarrhamphus sp.

7. 绿岱蝽 Dalpada amaragdina

8. 金绿曼蝽Menida metalica

9. 谷蝽Gonopsis affinis

10. 麻皮蝽Erthesns fullo

盲蝽科 Miridae

1. 中黑苜蓿盲蝽 Adelphocoris situralis

2. 后丽盲蝽 Apolygus sp.

3. 斑胸树丽盲蝽Lygocoris pronotalis

长蝽科 Lygaeidae

1. 小长蝽Nysius ericae

2. 红脊长蝽 Tropidothorax elegans

盾蝽科 Scutelleridae

1. 金绿宽盾蝽Poecilocoris lewisi

2.斜纹宽盾蝽 Poecilocoris dissimilis

Mendel’s Genetics [4]: examples of mutiple alleles

All the examples used in last classes have employed genes with only two alternative alleles. But the majority of genes exist in several different forms, multiple alleles. This is caused by the mutations of bases at different sites within the same gene, thus affecting different amino acids in the encoded protein.

examples of multiple-allele traits/diseases:

the human β-globin gene where a specific mutation at one site of the gene results in an allele responsible for the hereditary syndrome sickle cell (picture)anaemia, while mutations at several other sited sites in the gene cause a different syndrome, β-thalassemia(beta地中海贫血),
A SICKLE CELL,image from the Internet

Beta-thalassemia, inherited blood disorder caused by reduced or absent synthesis of the beta chains of hemoglobin, resulting in variable phenotypes ranging from severe anemia to clinically asymptomatic individuals.

Although they are alterations of the same gene, the changes are to different codons(a specific sequence of three consecutive nucleotides that is part of the genetic code and that specifies a particular amino acid in a protein or starts or stops protein synthesis). The resulting proteins have variant beta-globins with discrete differences in amino acid sequence and so behave differently.

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In rabbits, multiple alleles of one gene are responsible for a number of different coat color phenotypes.

Here we go, a little confusing but, interesting:

There are four members of the allelic series: agouti, chinchilla, Himalayan and albino. When homozygous, each series produces a distinct coat pattern. When heterozygous, there is a clear pattern of dominance. Agouti is dominant over all the alleles, chinchilla is dominant over Himalayan and albino, while Himalayan is dominant over albino, which fails to produce any pigment and hence is recessive to the others…Hope your mind is still clear!

1, Agouti rabbit: the wild rabbit.

genetics 4 an agouti rabbit — AN AGOUTI RABBIT, image form the Internet

If you blow into the fur of an Agouti rabbit, you will see “bandings” of different colors along the shaft of the hair, being blue, black, tan, fawn. The Agouti also has light tan coloring around the nostrils and at the back of the neck. The belly is cream.(http://rabbit.wikia.com/wiki/Agouti)

2, Chinchilla rabbit: soft, grey fur.

genetics 4 A five-week-old Chinchilla rabbit — A FIVE-WEEK-OLD CHINCHILLA RABBIT, image from the Internet

Chinchilla Rabbits originated in France and were bred to standard by M. J. Dybowski. They were introduced to the United States in 1919. (wikipedia)

3. Himalayan rabbit: white body with colored points, recognized colors are black, blue, chocolate and lilac.

A HIMALAYAN RABBIT, image from the Internet

red eyes; posed stretched out, body to be 3.5 head lengths. They are the ancestors of Californians, one of the most common meat rabbits.(wikipedia: Himalayan_rabbit)

4. Albino rabbit: completely white since it’s missing the melanin which determines the color of their skin, eyes, and fur.

genetics 4 albino rabbits — AN ALBINO RABBIT, image from the Internet

Not all white rabbits are albinos, so you’ll need to check their eyes. If their eyes are red or pink and their hair is totally white, they would be considered an albino. They are not rare.

An albino rabbit may not have the greatest eyesight due to their lack of eye pigment. Since their eyesight is not the best, they should be caged or kept inside since they may not be able to see predators.(http://www.ask.com/question/albino-rabbits)

Having seen so much about rabbits, hope you haven’t forgotten what we were doing before those cute bunnies. We were learning about examples of multiple alleles of one gene.

the human ABO blood group system.

(all form wikipedia: ABO blood group system:)

The ABO blood type is controlled by a single gene (the ABO gene) with three types of alleles inferred from classical genetics: i, I^A, and I^B. The gene encodes a glycosyltransferase— an enzyme that modifies the carbohydrate content of the red blood cell antigens.

The I^A allele gives type A, I^B gives type B, and i gives type O.

Both I^A and I^B are dominant over i, so only ii people have type O blood. Individuals with I^AI^A or I^Ai have type A blood, and individuals with I^BI^B or I^Bi have type B.

I^AI^B people have both phenotypes, because A and B express a special dominance relationship: codominance(we talked about it last class), which means that type A and B parents can have an AB child.

A type A and a type B couple can also have a type O child if they are both heterozygous (I^Bi,I^Ai)

Hope your mind is still clear!

NOTE: the concept of multiple alleles of one gene is totally different from multiple-gene inheritance.

A polygene, multiple factor, multiple gene inheritance, or quantitative gene is a group of, non-allelic, genes that together influence a phenotypic trait.

Mendel’s Genetics[3]: Variations of the 3:1ratio

Variations of the 3:1 ratio

The simple 3-to-1 monohybrid ratio is not always observed in instances where only one gene is responsible for a particular phenotype.

A number of factors:

Partial or incomplete dominance

Complete dominance means the phenotype of first filial generation(heterozygous) is exactly identical to that of one of the parents(both homozygous). Partial or incomplete dominance means the first filial has phenotype somewhere between that of both parents.

For example, When two pure-bred snapdragons, with white and red petals respectively, cross, their first filial generation has pink petal rather than red or white.

In this case, the homozygous phenotypes are red, or white petals while heterozygous one is between white and red: pink petal.

Thus, it is conceivable that when it comes to the second filial generation, which was produced by the self fertilization of the heterozygous F1, F2 should have three different phenotypes, white, pink, and red. And we can also deduce the ratio of them is 1:2:1.

Codominance

Codominance is similar to incomplete dominance, but here the heterozygote displays both alleles(两种等位基因均被表达).

For example, in humans the MN blood group is controlled by a single gene.

In humans the main blood group systems are the ABO system, the Rh system and theMN system.

Only two alleles exist, M and N. Children whose father is an NN homozygote with N blood and whose mother is a MM homozygote with group M blood are MN heterozygotes and have group MN blood.Both phenotypes are identifiable in the hybrid. And the ratio also switches from 3:1 to 1:2:1.

Lethal alleles

Some alleles affect the viability of individuals that carry them.

In most cases the homozygous recessive does not survive but the heterozygotes may have a normal lifespan.

The best-known example of lethal alleles is the inheritance of yellow coat color in mice.

Yellow fur can arise in strain of mice with different colors, or instance, black. Yellow coat color is dominant to black coat. Mice with BB alleles are back, with BB^yare yellow, with B^yB^y alleles are supposed to be yellow as well, but B^yB^y alleles are lethal and any mice with this genotype die in utero(in the uterus : before birth).

SO it is conceivable that when two yellow mices are mated ratio of the different phenotypes of their first generation is 2 : 1, rather than 3 : 1 or 1 : 2 :1.

NOTE: The allele B^yis recessive in its relation to its effect on viability (only homozygous B^yB^ys die, while the heterozygotes survive ), but dominant in relation to coat color(heterozygotes present in yellow fur in stead of black fur.).

Other examples where alleles are lethal when homozygous but have a dominant effect when heterozygous, include :

tailless Manx cats

genetics — a manx cat, image from the Internet

a breed of domestic cat(Felis catus) originating on the Isle of Man, with a naturally occurring mutation that shortens the tail.

The Manx taillessness gene is dominant and highly penetrant; kittens from two Manx parents are generally born without any tail. Being homozygous for the taillessnees gene is lethal in utero.Thus, tailless cats can only be heterzygous. Because of the danger of having homozygous taillessness gene, breeders avoid breeding two entirely tailless Manx cats together.(wikipedia: Manx (cat))

short-legged Creeper chickens.

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(Annie: If none of the homozygous yellow mice can survive before birth, then where did all the heterozygous yellow mice come from in the first place???????)

Answer: Through mutation. The presence of one mutant allele alters development so as to produce characteristic changes to the animal, but when two of the mutant alleles are present, development is so aberrant as to cause death.

This may occur in utero as described above or resulted in shortened life expectancy as found in several examples in humans, such as Tay-Sachs disease, Huntington’s syndrome（亨丁顿舞蹈症） or sickle-cell anemia（镰刀形红血球病）. (from Instant Notes)

Illustrations of wild animals [insect 4 Praying Mantids]

螳螂目 MANTODEA

Mantodea (Mantids / Praying Mantids)

The name Mantodea is derived from “mantis”, the Greek word for these insects.

Classification & Distribution

Hemimetabola

incomplete development (egg, nymph, adult)

Orthopteroid

closely related to Orthoptera and Blattodea

Distribution: Common in tropical and subtropical climates.

	WORLDWIDE
Number of Families	8
Number of Species	~1800

Life History & Ecology

Mantids have elongate bodies that are specialized for a predatory lifestyle: long front legs with spines for catching and holding prey, a head that can turn from side to side, and cryptic coloration for hiding in foliage or flowers.

Mantids are most abundant and most diverse in the tropics; there are only 5 species commonly collected in the United States and 3 of these have been imported from abroad.

Physical Features

Adults:

Filiform antennae
Head triangular with well-developed compound eyes
Mouthparts mandibulate, hypognathous
Prothorax elongate with large, spiny front legs adapted for catching prey
Front wings thickened, more slender than hind wings
Tarsi 5-segmented
Cerci short, multi-segmented

Immatures:

Structurally similar to adults
Developing wingpads often visible on thorax

Major Families

The name mantid refers only to members of the family Mantidae.

Bug Bytes
- Mantids are the only insects that can turn their head from side to side without moving any other part of the body. Many humans mistakenly interpret this behavior as a sign of intelligence.
- A female mantid may eat her mate while he is still linked with her in copulo. This behavior is probably more common in captivity than in the wild.
- Most mantids are cryptically colored to blend with their environment. A pink Malaysian species spends most of its time hunting for prey on pink orchids.
- Although mantids usually feed on insect prey, they have been known to catch and eat small frogs, lizards, and even birds

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↑Quoted from the General Entomology course
at North Carolina State University >Resource Library > Compendium > Mantodea (© 2009 by John R. Meyer; Last Updated: 8 April 2009)

>Learn more about pray mantids (mantodearesearch.com)

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螳科 Mantidae

大刀螳螂Tenodera aridifolia

2. 中华刀螳Tenodera sinensis

3. 短胸大刀螳Tenodera brevicollis

棕静螳 Statilia maculata

广斧螳 Hieroduia patellifera

长颈螳科 Vatidae

中华屏顶螳Kishinouyeum sinensae

鳞翅目Lepidoptera

Classification & Distribution

Life History & Ecology

Physical Features

Immatures

Adults

Major Families

Bug Bytes♣

Butterflies

Moths

天蚕蛾科Saturniidae(giant silk moths)

天蛾科Sphingidae(hawk moths)

灯蛾科Arctiidae(tiger moths)

毒蛾科Lymantridae(tussock moths)

直翅目Orthoptera

Classification & Distribution

Physical Features

Adults

Immatures

剑角蝗科Acrididae(short-horned grasshoppers and locusts)

螽斯科Tettigoniidae(long-horned grasshoppers and katydids)

蟋蟀科Gryllidae(true crickets)

蟋螽科Gryllacrididae(camel crickets)

双翅目DIPTERA

Life History & Ecology

Immatures:

Adults:

虻科Tabanidae(horse flies / deer flies, biting flies)

寄蝇科Tachinidae(parasites of other insects)

食蚜蝇科Syrphidae

Let’s begin with a relatively simple example.

When the situation gets a little bit more complicated:

A more complex situation:

The three examples above lead us to a new concept: Epistasis.

半翅目 HEMIPTERA

Classification & Distribution

Life History & Ecology

Physical Features

Adults:

Immatures:

Major Families

蝽科 Pentatomidae

长蝽科 Lygaeidae

盾蝽科 Scutelleridae

螳螂目 MANTODEA

Life History & Ecology

Physical Features

Adults:

Immatures:

Major Families

Bug Bytes

螳科 Mantidae

长颈螳科 Vatidae