anatomy – AP Biology

Illustrations of wild animals [insect 10 lepidoptera]

鳞翅目Lepidoptera

Lepidoptera

Butterflies / Moths

The name Lepidoptera, derived from the Greek words“lepido” for scale and “ptera” for wings, refers to the flattened hairs (scales) that cover the body and wings of most adults.

Classification & Distribution

Holometabola
- complete development (egg, larva, pupa, adult)
Several classification systems have been proposed for dividing the Lepidoptera into suborders. Regardless of the system used, all of the larger and more economically significant families are members of a single suborder (Frenatae or Ditrysia).

Distribution: Common worldwide.

North America Worldwide

Number of Families
75

135

Number of Species
11,286

>112,000
Life History & Ecology

Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) is the second largest order in the class Insecta. Nearly all lepidopteran larvae are called caterpillars. They have a well-developed head with chewing mouthparts. In addition to three pairs of legs on the thorax, they have two to eight pairs of fleshy abdominal prolegs that are structurally different from the thoracic legs. Most lepidopteran larvae are herbivores; some species eat foliage, some burrow into stems or roots, and some are leaf-miners.

Adults are distinctive for their large wings (relative to body size) which are covered with minute overlapping scales. Most entomologists believe that these scales are structurally related to the hair (setae) covering adult caddisflies. Lepidopteran wing scales often produce distinctive color patterns that play an important role in courtship and intraspecific recognition.

Although moths probably diverged from caddisflies in the early Triassic period, about 230 million years ago, adults in a few primitive families (e.g., Micropterygidae) still retain evidence of chewing mouthparts. In all other lepidopteran families, the mouthparts are vestigal or form a tubular proboscis that lies coiled like a watch spring beneath the head. This proboscis is derived from portions of the maxillae. It uncoils by hydrostatic pressure and acts as a siphon tube for sipping liquid nutrients, such as nectar, from flowers and other substrates.

From a taxonomic standpoint, the distinction between moths and butterflies is largely artificial — some moths are more similar to butterflies than to other moths. As a rule, butterflies are diurnal, brightly colored, and have knobs or hooks at the tip of the antennae. At rest, the wings are held vertically over the body. In contrast, most (but not all) moths are nocturnal. They are typically drab in appearance, and have thread-like, spindle-like, or comb-like antennae. At rest, their wings are held horizontally against the substrate, folded flat over the back, or curled around the body.

Physical Features

Immatures	Adults
Eruciform (caterpillar-like) Head capsule well-developed, with chewing mouthparts Abdomen with up to 5 pairs of prolegs	Mouthparts form a coiled tube (proboscis) beneath the head Antennal type: Butterflies: knobbed or hooked at tip Moths: thread-like, spindle-shaped, or comb-like Front wings large, triangular; hind wings large, fan-shaped Body and wings covered with small, overlapping scales

Major Families
Butterflies:
- Nymphalidae (brushfooted butterflies) — front legs reduced in size. This is the largest butterfly family; it includes the fritillaries, admirals, emperors, and tortoiseshells.
- Danaidae (milkweed butterflies) — adults are reddish-orange with black and white markings. Larvae feed on various species of milkweed. Includes the monarch (Danaus plexippus).
- Pieridae (whites and sulfurs) — adults are predominantly white or yellow with black markings. The imported cabbageworm (Pieris rapae) is a pest throughout the world.
- Papilionidae (swallowtails) — hind wings have a tail-like extension. The tiger swallowtail (Papilio glaucus) is a cosmopolitan species.
- Lycaenidae (blues, coppers, and hairstreaks) — small butterflies with fluted hind wings. Some species are extinct or nearing extinction, others are very common.
- Hesperiidae (skippers) — antennal club is hooked at the tip. The silverspotted skipper,Epargyreus clarus, is a common species.

Moths:

Tineidae (clothes moths) — some larvae construct cases and feed on natural fibers. Pests include the webbing clothes moth (Tineola bisselliella) and the casemaking clothes moth (Tinea pellionella).
Gelechiidae — one of the largest families of micro-lepidoptera. These larvae feed on plants or plant products. Pests include the Angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella) and the pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella).
Sesiidae (clearwing moths) — diurnally active adults mimic wasps. Many pests of fruit and vegetable crops, including the peachtree borer (Synanthedon exitiosa) and squash vine borer (Melittia cucurbitae).
Tortricidae — fourth largest family of Lepidoptera. Larvae feed inside stems, leaves, and fruit. Contains many pest species, including the codling moth (Cydia pomonella) and the oriental fruit moth (Grapholita molesta).
Pyralidae (snout moths) — second largest family of Lepidoptera. Pests include the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis), the Indianmeal moth (Plodia interpunctella), and the greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella).
Geometridae — third largest family of Lepidoptera. Larvae are often called inchworms or spanworms. Includes the winter moth (Operophtera brumata) and the fall cankerworm (Alsophila pometaria).
Lasiocampidae (lappet moths) — larvae feed on the leaves of trees and some spin large webs or tents on the foliage. Pests include the eastern tent caterpillar (Malacosoma americana) and the forest tent caterpillar (M. disstria).
Saturniidae (giant silk moths) — large, colorful moths. Larvae feed on a wide range of trees and shrubs. Well-known species include the cecropia moth (Hyalophora cecropia) and the luna moth (Actias luna).
Sphingidae (hawk moths) — medium to large adults with long proboscis for collecting nectar. Larvae are frequently called hornworms. Pests include the tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta) and tomato hornworm (M. quinquemaculata).
Arctiidae (tiger moths) — distinctive adults, usually white with black, red, yellow, or orange markings. Many larvae are covered with long hairs (woollybears). Includes the fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea).
Lymantriidae (tussock moths) — larvae are characterized by tufts of hair along the body. Adults do not feed. Pests include the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) and the browntail moth (Euproctis chrysorrhoea).
Noctuidae (loopers, owlet moths, and underwings) — this is the largest family in the Lepidoptera. Larvae are leaf feeders and stem borers. Many species are pests, including the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda), the black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon), and the cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni).

Bug Bytes♣

Some butterflies (family Lycaenidae) are considered “endangered species”. The Xerces blue (Glaucopsyche xerces) was last collected in 1943 from sand dunes near San Francisco, CA. This butterfly’s name has been adopted by the Xerces Society, an organization dedicated to the preservation of endangered species.
In flight, front and hind wings are linked together by a bristle (frenulum) or a membranous flap (jugum) so both wings move up and down in synchrony.
According to folklore, larvae of the banded woollybear, Pyrrharctia isabella, can forecast the severity of winter weather. A wide brown band means the winter will be harsh, a narrow brown band means the winter will be mild.
Adults of most Noctuidae and Arctiidae have “ears” in the thorax that help them detect and evade echo-locating bats. Some species of Arctiidae even produce high-pitched ticks that confuse the bats.

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Butterflies

凤蝶科Papilionidae(swallowtails)

1. 冰清绢蝶 Parnassius glacialis

2. 碧凤蝶 Papilio bianor

3. 柑橘凤蝶 Pailio xuthus

4. 金凤蝶 Pailio machaon

5. 宽尾凤蝶 Agehana elwesi.

6.青凤蝶Graphium sarpedon

7. 麝凤蝶 Byasa alcinous

灰蝶科Lycaenidae(blues, coppers, and hairstreaks)

1. 亮灰蝶Lampides boeticus

2. 琉璃灰蝶Celastrina sp.

3. 蓝灰蝶 Everes argiades

4. 红灰蝶 Lycaena phlaeas

5. 银线灰蝶Spindasis sp.

Moths

天蚕蛾科Saturniidae(giant silk moths)

1. 合目天蚕蛾 Caligula fallax

2. 银杏天蚕蛾Dictyoploca japonica

3.长尾天蚕蛾 Actias dubernaerdi

4.樗蚕娥Philosamia cynthia

天蛾科Sphingidae(hawk moths)

1.构月天蛾Parum colligata

2. 鹰翅天蛾Ambulyx sp.

3. 紫光盾天蛾 Phyllosphingia dissimilis

灯蛾科Arctiidae(tiger moths)

1. Miltochrista ziczac

2.首丽灯蛾Callimorpha principalis

3. 红带新鹿蛾Caeneressa rubrozonat

毒蛾科Lymantridae(tussock moths)

1. 黑褐盗毒蛾Porthesia atereta

2.条毒蛾Lymantria dissoluta

Illustrations of wild animals [insect 9: Orthoptera]

直翅目Orthoptera

Orthoptera

Grasshoppers / Locusts / Crickets / Katydids

The name Orthoptera, derived from the Greek “ortho” meaning straight and “ptera” meaning wing, refers to the parallel-sided structure of the front wings (tegmina).

Classification & Distribution

Hemimetabola
- incomplete development (egg, nymph, adult)
Orthopteroid
- closely related to Blattodea and Dermaptera
Distribution: Common and abundant throughout the world

North America
Worldwide

Number of Families
11

28

Number of Species
1,080

>20,000

Life History & Ecology

Orthoptera probably arose during the middle of the Carboniferous period. Most living members of this order are terrestrial herbivores with modified hind legs that are adapted for jumping.

Slender, thickened front wings fold back over the abdomen to protect membranous, fan-shaped hind wings. Many species have the ability to make and detect sounds. Orthoptera is one of the largest and most important groups of plant-feeding insects.

Physical Features


Adults	Immatures
Antennae filiform Mouthparts mandibulate, hypognathous Pronotum shield like, covering much of thorax Front wings narrow, leathery (tegmina); hind wings fan-like Hind legs usually adapted for jumping (hind femur enlarged) Tarsi 3- or 4-segmented Cerci short, unsegmented	Structurally similar to adults Developing wingpads often visible on thorax

Major Families

Grasshoppers and Locusts:

- Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers and locusts) — Herbivores. Common in grasslands and prairies. This family includes many pest species such as the twostriped grasshopper (Melanoplus bivittatus), the differential grasshopper (M. differentialis), the African migratory locust (Locusta migratoria), and the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria).
- Tetrigidae (pigmy grasshoppers) — Herbivores. Similar to short-horned grasshoppers but with a pronotum that extends to the back of the abdomen.

Katydids:

- Tettigoniidae (long-horned grasshoppers and katydids) — Herbivores. Females have a long, blade-like ovipositor. Some species are pests of trees and shrubs.

Crickets

- Gryllidae (true crickets) — Herbivores and scavengers. Females have a cylindrical or needle-shaped ovipositor. This family includes the house cricket, Acheta domesticus.
- Gryllacrididae (camel crickets) — Scavengers. Most species have a distinctly hump-backed appearance; a few are cave dwellers.
- Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets) — The front legs are adapted for digging. Most species feed on the roots of plants, but some are predatory.

Bug Bytes♣

In many species of Orthoptera, the males use sound signals (chirping or whirring) in order to attract a mate. The sound is produced by stridulation — rubbing the upper surface of one wing against the lower surface of another wing, or the inner surface of the hind leg against the outer surface of the front wing.
Each stridulating species produces a unique mating call. In fact, some species may be so similar to each other that they can only be distinguished by their mating calls.
Many grasshoppers produce ultrasonic mating calls (above the range of human hearing). In some species, the sounds may be as high as 100 kHz. (Human hearing extends to about 20 kHz.)
Species that produce sound also have auditory (tympanal) organs. In crickets and katydids, these “ears” are on the tibia of the front legs. In grasshoppers, they are on the sides of the first abdominal segment.
The snowy tree cricket, Oecanthus fultoni (family Gryllidae), is often called the temperature cricket. Adding 40 to the number of chirps it makes in 15 seconds will equal the ambient temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.
The redlegged grasshopper Melanoplus femurrubrum is not only a crop pest but also the intermediate host for a tapeworm Choanotaenia infundibulum that infests poultry

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剑角蝗科Acrididae(short-horned grasshoppers and locusts)

1. 中华剑角蝗 Acrida cinerea

2. 短翅佛蝗Phlaeoba angustidorsis

蚱科Tetrigidae(pigmy grasshoppers)

1. 日本蚱Tetrix japonica

2. 突眼蚱 Ergatettix dorsiferus

螽斯科Tettigoniidae(long-horned grasshoppers and katydids)

1. 中华尤螽Uvarovina chinensis

2.尤螽Uvarovina sp.

3. 寰螽 Atlanticus sp.

绿螽斯 tettigonia sp.

5. 斑腿栖螽Tettigonia chinensis

蟋蟀科Gryllidae(true crickets)

1. 斗蟀Velarifictorus sp.

2. 扁头蟋Loxoblemmus sp.

3. 多伊棺头蟋Loxoblemmus doenitzi

蟋螽科Gryllacrididae(camel crickets)

1.素色杆蟋螽Phryganogryllacris unicolor

the blueprint of life [7]: prokaryotic chromosome structure of DNA

First, let’s make sure the anatomy of prokaryotes are familiar to us:

Prokaryotes are the simplest living cells, typically 1~10μm in diameter, and are found in all environmental niches from the guts of the animals to acidic hot springs.

They are bounded by a cell (plasma)membrane comprising a lipid bilayer, in which are embeded proteins that allow the exit and entry of small molecules.
Most prokaryotes also have a rigid cell wall outside the plasma membrane, which prevents the cell from swelling or shrinking in environments where osmolarity differs significantly from that inside the cell.
Sometimes the cell wall is surrounded by an (often) polysaccharide envelope called capsule.
The cell interior (cytoplasm or cytosol) usually contains a single, circular chromosome compacted into a nucleoid and attached to the membrane.
There are no distinct subcelluar organelles in prokaryotes as in eukaryotes(except for the ribosomes核糖体).
The surface of a prokaryote may carry pili, which allow the prokaryote to attach to other cells and surfaces. Some prokaryotes also carry flagella, whose rotating motion allows the cell to swim.

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To talk about prokaryotic chromosome structure, we use E. coli (大肠杆菌)as the example.

E. coli chromosome contains a single supercoiled circular DNA molecule of length 4.6 million bp.
E. coli chromosome is highly folded: 1500 µm of DNA length versus ~1 µm of cell size, forming a structure called the nucleoid.
The nucleoid has a very high DNA concentration, perhaps 30~50 mg/ml, as well as containing all the proteins associated with DNA, such as polyerases, repressors(a protein that is determined by a regulatory gene, binds to a genetic operator, and inhibits the initiation of transcription of messenger RNA), etc.

——————————————————————————-

DNA domains (loops)

Remember this famous electron micrograph of an E. coli cell we showed before? The cell was carefully lysed, all the proteins removed and then, it was spread on an EM grid to reveal all of its DNA.

Several of such experiments revealed one level of organization of the nucleoid.

The DNA consists of 50~100 domains or loops, about 50~100 kb in size (kb: kilobase, a unit of measure of the length of a nucleic-acid chain that equals one thousand base pairs).
The ends of the loops are constrained by binding to a structure which probably consists of proteins attached to part of the cell membrane.
Not known whether the loops are static or dynamic, but one model suggests that the DNA may spool(wind) through sites of polyerase or other enzymic action at the base of the loops.

E coli DNA instant notes

image above is from”Instant Notes in Molecular Biology”

Supercoiling of the genome

The E. coli chromosome as a whole is negatively supercoiled, although there is some evidence that indicates individual domains may be supercoiled independently. Electron micrographs indicate that some domains may not be supercoiled, perhaps because the DNA has become broken in one strand, where other domains clearly do contain supercoils.

The domains may be topologically independent. There is, however, no real biochemical evidence for major differences in the level of supercoiling in different regions of the chromosome in vivo

DNA-binding proteins

The looped DNA domains of the chromosome are constrained further by inter-action with a number of DNA-binding proteins.

The most abundant of these are protein HU, a small basic (+charged) dimeric protein, which binds DNA non-specifically by the wrapping of the DNA aorund the protein.

And H-NS (formerly known as the protein H1), a monomeric neutral protein, which also binds DNA non-specifically in terms of sequence, but seems to have a preference for regions of DNA which are intrinsically bent.

These proteins are sometimes known as histone-like proteins, and have the effect of compacting the DNA, which is essential for the packaging of the DNA into the nucleoid, and of stabilizing and constraining the supercoiling of the chromosome.

Illustrations of wild animals [insect 8 Diptera]

双翅目DIPTERA

Diptera

True Flies / Mosquitoes / Gnats / Midges

The name Diptera, derived from the Greek words “di”meaning two and “ptera” meaning wings, refers to the fact that true flies have only a single pair of wings.

Classification & Distribution

Holometabola

complete development (egg, larva, pupa, adult)

The Diptera have traditionally been divided into three suborders:

Nematocera (flies with multisegmented antennae)
Brachycera (flies with stylate antennae)
Cyclorrhapha (flies with aristate antennae)

In some newer classifications, Brachycera includes the Cyclorrhapha.

Distribution: Abundant worldwide. Larvae are found in all fresh water, semi-aquatic, and moist terrestrial environments.

	North America	Worldwide
Number of Families	108	130
Number of Species	16,914	~98,500

Life History & Ecology

The order Diptera includes all true flies. These insects are distinctive because their hind wings are reduced to small, club-shaped structures called halteres – only the membranous front wings serve as aerodynamic surfaces. The halteres vibrate during flight and work much like a gyroscope to help the insect maintain balance.

All Dipteran larvae are legless. They live in aquatic (fresh water), semi-aquatic, or moist terrestrial environments. They are commonly found in the soil, in plant or animal tissues, and in carrion or dung — almost always where there is little danger of desiccation. Some species are herbivores, but most feed on dead organic matter or parasitize other animals, especially vertebrates, molluscs, and other arthropods. In the more primitive families (suborder Nematocera), fly larvae have well-developed head capsules with mandibulate mouthparts. These structures are reduced or absent in the more advanced suborders (Brachycera and Cyclorrhapha) where the larvae, known as maggots, have worm-like bodies and only a pair of mouth hooks for feeding.

Adult flies live in a wide range of habitats and display enormous variation in appearance and life style. Although most species have haustellate mouthparts and collect food in liquid form, their mouthparts are so diverse that some entomologists suspect the feeding adaptations may have arisen from more than a single evolutionary origin. In many families, the proboscis (rostrum) is adapted for sponging and/or lapping. These flies survive on honeydew, nectar, or the exudates of various plants and animals (dead or alive). In other families, the proboscis is adapted for cutting or piercing the tissues of a host. Some of these flies are predators of other arthropods (e.g., robber flies), but most of them are external parasites (e.g., mosquitoes and deer flies) that feed on the blood of their vertebrate hosts, including humans and most wild and domestic animals.

Physical Features

Immatures:

Culiciform
- Head capsule present with chewing mouthparts
- Legs absent
Vermiform (maggots)
- Without legs or a distinct head capsule
- Mouthparts reduced; only present as mouth hooks

Adults:

Antennae filiform, stylate, or aristate
Mouthparts suctorial (haustellate)
Mesothorax larger than pro- or metathorax
One pair of wings (front); hind wings reduced (halteres)
Tarsi 5-segmented

Major Families

Biting flies: In most cases, only the adult females take blood meals.♦
Herbivores: larvae feed on plant tissues.
Scavengers: larvae feed in dung, carrion, garbage, or other organic matter.
Predators: adults and/or larvae attack other insects as prey.:
Parasites: larvae are parasites or parasitoids of other animals.
Bug Bytes ♣
- Although they have only two wings, flies are among the best aerialists in the insect world – they can hover, fly backwards, turn in place, and even fly upside down to land on a ceiling.
- Flies have the highest wing-beat frequency of any animal. In some tiny midges, it may be as high as 1000 beats per second. Male mosquitoes are attracted by the wing-beat frequency of a virgin female.
- Larvae of some shore flies (family Ephydridae) live in unusual habitats that would kill other insects. For example, Ephydra brucei lives in hot springs and geysers where the water temperature exceeds 112 degrees Fahrenheit; Helaeomyia petrolei develop in pools of crude oil; and the brine fly, Ephydra cinera, can survive very high concentrations of salt.
- The arista in the antenna of higher flies is an air speed indicator. It allows the insect to sense how fast it is moving.
- As they mature, black fly pupae become inflated with air. Upon emergence, the pupal skin pops open and the adult fly floats to the water surface inside a bubble of air. It never even gets its feet wet!
- The little scuttle fly, Megaselia scataris (Phoridae), is truly an omnivore. It has been reared from decaying vegetation, shoe polish, paint emulsions, human cadavers pickled in formalin, and even lung tissue from living people.

====================================================↑Quoted from the General Entomology course at North Carolina State University >Resource Library > Compendium > diptera (© 2009 by John R. Meyer; Last Updated: 8 April 2009)

>Learn more about homoptera (www.insectsexplained.com)

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虻科Tabanidae(horse flies / deer flies, biting flies)

虻Tabanus sp.

大蚊科Tipulidae (crane flies, scavengers )

1. 大蚊 Tipua sp.

2. 斑大蚊 Nephrotoma appendiculata

3. 亮大蚊 Limonia sp

4. 雅大蚊Tipula sp.

5. 双色丽大蚊Tipula sp.

6. 短柄大蚊 Nephrotoma sp.

寄蝇科Tachinidae(parasites of other insects)

1. 绒寄蝇Tachina sp.

2.长须寄蝇Peletina sp.

3. 灰等腿寄蝇 Isomera cinerascens

4. 柞蚕饰腹寄蝇 Blepharipa tibialis

食蚜蝇科Syrphidae

1. 双色小蚜蝇Paragus bicolor

2. 亮黑斑眼蚜蝇Eristalinus tarsalis

3. 三带蜂蚜蝇Volucella trifasciata

4. 凹带蚜蝇Metasyrphus nitens

5. 紫额异巴蚜蝇Allobacha apicalis

6.切黑狭口蚜蝇 Asarkina ericetorum

7. 宽带细腹蚜蝇Sphaerophoria macrogaster

8. 宽盾蚜蝇Phytomia sp.

Illustrations of wild animals [insect 7 Homoptera 2]

同翅目 HOMOPTERA

角蝉科 Membracidae

1. 黑圆角蝉Gargara genistae

2. 小截角蝉 Truncatocornum parvum

沫蝉科 Cercopidae

1. 斑带丽沫蝉Cosmoscarta bispecularis

2. 东方丽沫蝉 Cosmoscarta heros

3. 紫胸丽沫蝉Cosmoscarta exultans

4. 象沫蝉 Philagra sp.

白纹象沫蝉Philagra aibinotata

6. 尖胸沫蝉Aphrophora sp.

蜡蝉科 Fulgoridae

1. 斑衣蜡蝉Lycirma delicatula

2. 雪白粒脉蜡蝉 Nisia atrovenosa

Illustrations of wild animals [insect 6 Homoptera 1]

同翅目 HOMOPTERA

Order Hemiptera
suborder Heteroptera *	Bugs
suborder Homoptera *	Cicadas, Hoppers, Psyllids, Whiteflies, Aphids, and Scale insects

Most people tend to call anything with lots of legs a “bug.” However, to an entomologist, a “bug” is one of the 35,000 or so species of the order Hemiptera.

Hemiptera means “half wing” and refers to the fact that part of the first pair of wings is toughened and hard, while the rest of the first pair and the second pair are membranous. Hemipterans also have modified piercing and sucking mouthparts; some suck plant juices and are plant pests, while others can bite painfully.

A possibly paraphyletic group of insects known as the Homoptera is sometimes included within the Hemiptera, even though they lack the toughened areas on the first pair of wings.

Some entomologists group both Hemiptera and Homoptera within the group Heteroptera; others use the name Heteroptera for what we have called the Hemiptera and use Hemiptera for the Heteroptera.

Confused? So are we. Anyway, the Homoptera have the dubious distinction of being probably the most destructive insects of all. They include aphids, leafhoppers, cicadas, and scale insects: 45,000 species in all.

↑Quoted from University of California Museum Paleontology>arthropoda>uniramia>hemiptera

Hemiptera

Suborder Homoptera

Leafhoppers, Planthoppers, Treehoppers, Cicadas, Aphids, Psyllids, Whiteflies, Scale Insects

The name Homoptera, derived from the Greek “homo-“meaning uniform and “ptera” meaning wings, refers to the uniform texture of the front wings.

Classification & Distribution

Hemimetabola

incomplete development (egg, nymph, adult)

Hemipteroid

closely related to Thysanoptera and Psocoptera

Distribution: Abundant worldwide. All species are terrestrial herbivores.

	North America	Worldwide
Number of Families	38	60
Number of Species	6359	>32,000

Physical Features

Adults:

Antennae slender or bristle-like
Proboscis short, arising near lower back margin of head
Front wings, when present, uniform in texture; at rest, wings fold tent-like over the abdomen
Tarsi 1- to 3-segmented

Immatures:

Structurally similar to adults
Always lacking wings

Major Families

Cicadidae (Cicadas) — Nymphs live underground where they feed on the roots of trees and shrubs. Adults are the largest members of the Homoptera. Males produce loud songs to attract a mate.
Cicadellidae (Leafhoppers) — This is the largest family of Homoptera and includes many pests of cultivated plants. Leafhoppers are important carriers of plant diseases — especially mycoplasmas.
Membracidae (Treehoppers) — Ecologically similar to leafhoppers, these insects have a large pronotum that extends over most of the body. They often resemble thorns or small twigs.
Cercopidae (Spittlebugs or Froghoppers) — Nymphs live on plant stems and produce a frothy defensive secretion around themselves. Adults are similar to leafhoppers in size and general appearance.
Fulgoridae (Planthoppers) — This is one of eleven families classified as planthoppers (superfamily Fulgoroidea). These insects are ecologically similar to leafhoppers and treehoppers. Many species are oddly shaped and cryptically colored.
Psyllidae (Psyllids or Jumping Plant Lice) — Small, aphid-like insects with 3-segmented beaks and 10 segmented antennae. Many species are covered with a woolly layer of wax.
Aleyrodidae (Whiteflies) — Body and wings of adults are covered with a white powdery wax. Nymphs attach to the undersides of leaves and become immobile, resembling scale insects.
Aphididae (Aphids, Plantlice) — Second largest family in the suborder Homptera. Many of these insects are pests of cultivated plants. Aphids are considered the most important carriers of viral plant diseases.
Coccidae (Soft Scale insects) — This is one of 17 families that make up the superfamily Coccoidea (scale insects and mealybugs). Most species are sedentary during most of their life cycle and secreate a protective covering over their bodies. These insects are among the most common pests of cultivated plants.

====================================================↑Quoted from the General Entomology course at North Carolina State University >Resource Library > Compendium > Homoptera (© 2009 by John R. Meyer; Last Updated: 8 April 2009)

>Learn more about homoptera (www.insectsexplained.com)

====================================================

蝉科 Cicadidae

1. 草蝉 Mogannia sp.

2. 绿草蝉 Mogannia hebes

3. 蒙古寒蝉 Meimuna mongocica

4. 螗蝉Tanna japonensis

5. 鸣鸣蝉 Oncotympana maculaticollis

6. 蟪蛄Platypleura kaempferi

叶蝉科 Cicadellidae

1. 丽叶蝉 Calodia sp.

2. 华凹大叶蝉 Bothrogonia sinica

3. 条大叶蝉Atkinsoniella

4. 显脉叶蝉Paramesus sp.

5. 槽胫叶蝉Drabescus sp.

6. 窗耳叶蝉Ledra auditura

7. 隐纹大叶蝉Tettigoniella thalia

8. 横脊叶蝉Evacanthus sp.

9.白边拟大叶蝉Ishidaella albomarginata

Illustrations of wild animals [insect 5 Hemiptera]

半翅目 HEMIPTERA

Most people tend to call anything with lots of legs a “bug.” However, to an entomologist, a “bug” is one of the 35,000 or so species of the order Hemiptera.

A possibly paraphyletic group of insects known as the Homoptera is sometimes included within the Hemiptera, even though they lack the toughened areas on the first pair of wings.

Some entomologists group both Hemiptera and Homoptera within the group Heteroptera; others use the name Heteroptera for what we have called the Hemiptera and use Hemiptera for the Heteroptera.

↑Quoted from University of California Museum Paleontology>arthropoda>uniramia>hemiptera

Hemiptera(/heteroptera)
Suborder Heteroptera (/hemiptera)

True Bugs

The name Heteroptera, derived from the Greek “hetero-“em> meaning different and “ptera” meaning wings, refers to the fact that the texture of the front wings is different near the base (leathery) than at the apex (membranous).

Classification & Distribution

Hemimetabola
- incomplete development (egg, nymph, adult)
Orthopteroid
- closely related to Thysanoptera and Psocoptera
Distribution: Abundant worldwide. Found in most terrestrial and freshwater habitats.

North America
Worldwide

Number of Families
40

73

Number of Species
3587

>50,000
Life History & Ecology

Members of the suborder Heteroptera are known as “true bugs”.

They have very distinctive front wings, called hemelytra, in which the basal half is leathery and the apical half is membranous. At rest, these wings cross over one another to lie flat along the insect’s back.

These insects also have elongate, piercing-sucking mouthparts which arise from the ventral (hypognathous) or anterior (prognathous) part of the head capsule.

The mandibles and maxillae are long and thread-like, interlocking with one another to form a flexible feeding tube (proboscis) that is no more than 0.1 mm in diameter yet contains both a food channel and a salivary channel. These stylets are enclosed within a protective sheath (the labium) that shortens or retracts during feeding.

The Heteroptera include a diverse assemblage of insects that have become adapted to a broad range of habitats — terrestrial, aquatic and semi-aquatic.

Terrestrial species are often associated with plants. They feed in vascular tissues or on the nutrients stored within seeds. Other species live as scavengers in the soil or underground in caves or ant nests. Still others are predators on a variety of small arthropods. A few species even feed on the blood of vertebrates.

Bed bugs, and other members of the family Cimicidae, live exclusively as ectoparasites on birds and mammals (including humans). Aquatic Heteroptera can be found on the surface of both fresh and salt water, near shorelines, or beneath the water surface in nearly all freshwater habitats. With only a few exceptions, these insects are predators of other aquatic organisms.

Physical Features

Adults:

Antennae slender with 4-5 segments
Proboscis 3-4 segmented, arising from front of head and curving below body when not in use
Pronotum usually large, trapezoidal or rounded
Triangular scutellum present behind pronotum
Front wings with basal half leathery and apical half membranous (hemelytra). Wings lie flat on the back at rest, forming an “X”.
Tarsi 2- or 3-segmented

Immatures:

Structurally similar to adults
Always lacking wings

Major Families

The three largest families of Heteroptera are:
- - Miridae (Plant Bugs) — Most species feed on plants, but some are predaceous. This family includes numerous pests such as the tarnished plant bug (Lygus lineolaris).
  - Lygaeidae (Seed Bugs) — Most species are seed feeders, a few are predatory. This family includes the chinch bug, Blissus leucopterus a pest of small grains, and the bigeyed bug, Geocoris bullatis, a beneficial predator.
  - Pentatomidae (Stink Bugs) — Shield-shaped body with large, triangular scutellum. Most species are herbivores, some are predators. All have scent glands which can produce an unpleasant odor.
Other families of terrestrial herbivores include:
- - Tingidae (lace bugs)
  - Coreidae (squash bugs and leaffooted bugs)
  - Alydidae (broadheaded bugs)
  - Rhopalidae (scentless plant bugs)
  - Berytidae (stilt bugs)
Other families of terrestrial predators include:
- - Reduviidae (assassin bugs)
  - Phymatidae (ambush bugs)
  - Nabidae (damsel bugs)
  - Anthocoridae (minute pirate bugs)
The major families of aquatic predators include:
- - Corixidae (water boatmen)
  - Gerridae (water striders)
  - Nepidae (water scorpions)
  - Belostomatidae (giant water bugs)
  - Naucoridae (creeping water bugs)
  - Notonectidae (backswimmers)
Bug Bytes
- Two families of Heteroptera are ectoparasites. The Cimicidae (bed bugs) live on birds and mammals (including humans). The Polyctenidae (bat bugs) live on bats.
- Water striders in the genus Halobates (family Gerridae) are the only insects that are truly marine. They live on the surface of the Pacific Ocean.
- Unlike other insects, male bedbugs do not place their sperm directly in the female’s reproductive tract. Instead, they puncture her abdomen and inject the sperm into her body cavity. The sperm swim to the ovaries where they fertilize the eggs. This unusual type of reproductive behavior is appropriately known as “traumatic insemination”.
- Some members of the family Largidae resemble ants. They live as social parasites in ant nests, mimicking the ants’ behavior to get food

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>Learn more about heteroptera (www.insectsexplained.com)

====================================================

蝽科 Pentatomidae

1. 全蝽Homalogonia sp.

2.双峰疣蝽 Cazira verrucosa

3. 庐山珀蝽Plautia lushanica

4.弯角蝽Lelia decem punctata

5. 斑须蝽 Dolycoris baccarum

6.梭蝽Megarrhamphus sp.

7. 绿岱蝽 Dalpada amaragdina

8. 金绿曼蝽Menida metalica

9. 谷蝽Gonopsis affinis

10. 麻皮蝽Erthesns fullo

盲蝽科 Miridae

1. 中黑苜蓿盲蝽 Adelphocoris situralis

2. 后丽盲蝽 Apolygus sp.

3. 斑胸树丽盲蝽Lygocoris pronotalis

长蝽科 Lygaeidae

1. 小长蝽Nysius ericae

2. 红脊长蝽 Tropidothorax elegans

盾蝽科 Scutelleridae

1. 金绿宽盾蝽Poecilocoris lewisi

2.斜纹宽盾蝽 Poecilocoris dissimilis

Illustrations of wild animals [insect 4 Praying Mantids]

螳螂目 MANTODEA

Mantodea (Mantids / Praying Mantids)

The name Mantodea is derived from “mantis”, the Greek word for these insects.

Classification & Distribution

Hemimetabola

incomplete development (egg, nymph, adult)

Orthopteroid

closely related to Orthoptera and Blattodea

Distribution: Common in tropical and subtropical climates.

	WORLDWIDE
Number of Families	8
Number of Species	~1800

Life History & Ecology

Mantids have elongate bodies that are specialized for a predatory lifestyle: long front legs with spines for catching and holding prey, a head that can turn from side to side, and cryptic coloration for hiding in foliage or flowers.

Mantids are most abundant and most diverse in the tropics; there are only 5 species commonly collected in the United States and 3 of these have been imported from abroad.

Physical Features

Adults:

Filiform antennae
Head triangular with well-developed compound eyes
Mouthparts mandibulate, hypognathous
Prothorax elongate with large, spiny front legs adapted for catching prey
Front wings thickened, more slender than hind wings
Tarsi 5-segmented
Cerci short, multi-segmented

Immatures:

Structurally similar to adults
Developing wingpads often visible on thorax

Major Families

The name mantid refers only to members of the family Mantidae.

Bug Bytes
- Mantids are the only insects that can turn their head from side to side without moving any other part of the body. Many humans mistakenly interpret this behavior as a sign of intelligence.
- A female mantid may eat her mate while he is still linked with her in copulo. This behavior is probably more common in captivity than in the wild.
- Most mantids are cryptically colored to blend with their environment. A pink Malaysian species spends most of its time hunting for prey on pink orchids.
- Although mantids usually feed on insect prey, they have been known to catch and eat small frogs, lizards, and even birds

====================================================

↑Quoted from the General Entomology course
at North Carolina State University >Resource Library > Compendium > Mantodea (© 2009 by John R. Meyer; Last Updated: 8 April 2009)

>Learn more about pray mantids (mantodearesearch.com)

====================================================

螳科 Mantidae

大刀螳螂Tenodera aridifolia

2. 中华刀螳Tenodera sinensis

3. 短胸大刀螳Tenodera brevicollis

棕静螳 Statilia maculata

广斧螳 Hieroduia patellifera

长颈螳科 Vatidae

中华屏顶螳Kishinouyeum sinensae

IIllustrations of wild animals [insect 3 Odonata]

Before this section, make sure you have read the page introducing classification of insects.(Illustrations of wild animals [insect 1])

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蜻蜓目 ODONATA

Odonata means “toothed jaws,” and indeed the larger species of dragonflies and damseflies may give you a startling but harmless bite.Despite what your mother told you about dragonflies sewing up your lips, they cannot stitch or sting you in any way.

The order Odonata is subdivided into three suborders: Anisoptera, the dragonflies; Zygoptera, the damselflies; and Anisozygoptera, mostly fossilized species with only two known living members.

physical features

extremely large eyes (in proportion to its head)

a long, slender abdomen

Large mandibles(jaw), chewing prey quickly and easily, an important feature since these insects tend to eat on the move.

Thorax tilted, positioning the legs just below the mandibles where they function as a prey-catching basket.

“Primitive winged,” ( wings that cannot be folded). giving Odonates the interesting abilities to hover, fly backward, and take off vertically, similar to a helicopter.

Being able to rotate their heads nearly 360 degrees, giving them an almost limitless field of view.

Dragonflies and damselflies have tiny antennae, so vision is their primary means of navigating and capturing prey.

——————————————————————————-

Odonate eggs are laid in water, where they hatch into wingless naiads. The naiads have gills, and will molt up to 15 times, depending on the species. Some naiads remain in their aquatic environment for as long as two years before reaching adulthood. The final molt produces functioning wings, and the adult dragonfly or damselfly can hunt over water or land.

Habitat and Distribution:

Odonates inhabit every continent except Antarctica, in habitats where fresh water is present. Most species in the order are tropical.

Major Families and Superfamilies in the Order:

Aeshnidae – darners
Gomphidae – clubtails
Libellulidae – common skimmers and chasers
Coenagrionidae – narrow-winged damselflies
Corduliidae – emeralds

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↑Quoted from Order Odonata – Characteristics of Dragonflies and Damselflies By Debbie Hadley

>Learn more about Odonata

====================================================

蜓科 Aeshnidae (darners)

黑纹伟蜓 Anax nigrofasciatus

碧伟蜓 Anax parthenope

春蜓科 Gomphidae (clubtails)

1. 弗鲁戴春蜓 Davidius fruhstorferi

联纹小叶春蜓 Gomphidia confluens

4. 小团扇春蜓 Ictinogomphus rapax

蜻科 Libellulidae (common skimmers and chasers)

1. 六斑曲缘蜻 Palpopleura sexmaculata

半黄赤蜻Sympetrum croceolum

3. 夏赤蜻 Sympetrum darwinianum

4. 大黄赤蜻 Sympetrum uniforme

5. 小黄赤蜻Sympetrum kunckeli

6.竖眉赤蜻 Symprtrum eroticum ardens

7. 红蜻 Crocothemis servilia

9. 晓褐蜻 Trithemis aurora

蟌科 Coenagriidae (narrow-winged damselflies)

截尾黄蟌 Ceriagrion erubescens

2. 矛斑蟌 Coenagrion lanceolatum

3. 杯斑小蟌 Agriocnemis femina

鳞翅目Lepidoptera

Classification & Distribution

Life History & Ecology

Physical Features

Immatures

Adults

Major Families

Bug Bytes♣

Butterflies

Moths

天蚕蛾科Saturniidae(giant silk moths)

天蛾科Sphingidae(hawk moths)

灯蛾科Arctiidae(tiger moths)

毒蛾科Lymantridae(tussock moths)

直翅目Orthoptera

Classification & Distribution

Physical Features

Adults

Immatures

剑角蝗科Acrididae(short-horned grasshoppers and locusts)

螽斯科Tettigoniidae(long-horned grasshoppers and katydids)

蟋蟀科Gryllidae(true crickets)

蟋螽科Gryllacrididae(camel crickets)

双翅目DIPTERA

Life History & Ecology

Immatures:

Adults:

虻科Tabanidae(horse flies / deer flies, biting flies)

寄蝇科Tachinidae(parasites of other insects)

食蚜蝇科Syrphidae

同翅目 HOMOPTERA

角蝉科 Membracidae

沫蝉科 Cercopidae

蜡蝉科 Fulgoridae

同翅目 HOMOPTERA

Adults:

Immatures:

Major Families

蝉科 Cicadidae

叶蝉科 Cicadellidae

半翅目 HEMIPTERA

Classification & Distribution

Life History & Ecology

Physical Features

Adults:

Immatures:

Major Families

蝽科 Pentatomidae

长蝽科 Lygaeidae

盾蝽科 Scutelleridae

螳螂目 MANTODEA

Life History & Ecology

Physical Features

Adults:

Immatures:

Major Families

Bug Bytes

螳科 Mantidae

长颈螳科 Vatidae

蜻蜓目 ODONATA

蜓科 Aeshnidae (darners)

春蜓科 Gomphidae (clubtails)

蜻科 Libellulidae (common skimmers and chasers)

蟌科 Coenagriidae (narrow-winged damselflies)